Ali ibn Abi Talib became caliph in 35 AH after the killing of Uthman ibn Affan.
His caliphate began during one of the most difficult periods in early Islamic history. The Muslim community was deeply divided following Uthman’s death, and questions surrounding allegiance, justice and the response to those responsible for his killing shaped the political events that followed.
A number of Companions approached Ali and asked him to accept the caliphate because of his early acceptance of Islam, his close relationship with the Prophet Muhammad and his prominent position among the Companions.
The Pledge of Allegiance to Ali
Historical reports state that Ali initially hesitated to accept leadership under such difficult circumstances.
He eventually accepted the pledge of allegiance after insistence from the Muslims, requesting that the pledge take place in the mosque and reflect the consent of the Muslim community.
The circumstances surrounding the pledge were very different from those of the earlier caliphates because the Muslim community was already experiencing serious political instability.
The question of how to respond to Uthman’s killers became one of the central issues affecting the subsequent conflict.
The Position of Syria
After becoming caliph, Ali appointed governors in several provinces.
Some regions accepted his authority, while others took different positions. Syria, under Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, did not immediately give allegiance to Ali.
Muawiyah and those with him demanded that the killers of Uthman be brought to justice before the political dispute was settled.
The disagreement eventually developed into military confrontation.
The Battle of the Camel
The Battle of the Camel took place in 36 AH and involved Ali’s forces on one side and forces associated with Aishah, Talhah and al-Zubayr on the other.
Historical accounts describe attempts at reconciliation before the fighting, followed by the escalation of events that led to battle.
Talhah and al-Zubayr were killed during the conflict, while Aishah was eventually returned safely to Medina. Ali treated her with respect and ensured her safe return.
The Battle of the Camel remains one of the most complex episodes of the First Fitnah, and historical sources differ over the details of its causes and sequence.
The Battle of Siffin
The Battle of Siffin occurred in 37 AH between Ali’s forces and the forces of Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan.
A central issue was the question of how and when to pursue justice against those responsible for Uthman’s killing.
Ali’s position was associated with the need to stabilize the Muslim community and consolidate authority, while Muawiyah and his supporters insisted on pursuing the killers of Uthman before accepting the political settlement.
The confrontation continued for an extended period before the two sides suspended fighting and attempted to pursue reconciliation.
The Raising of the Quranic Manuscripts and Arbitration
One of the most famous events at Siffin was the raising of Quranic manuscripts by the Syrian forces and their call for arbitration.
Abu Musa al-Ashari represented Ali, while Amr ibn al-As represented Muawiyah.
Historical accounts differ considerably concerning the details of the arbitration and what exactly was agreed upon.
The arbitration did not end the political conflict and was followed by further divisions within Ali’s camp.
The Emergence of the Kharijites
After Siffin and the arbitration, a group separated from Ali and became known as the Kharijites.
They raised the slogan “There is no judgment except for Allah.”
Ali responded that the statement itself was true, but that it was being used to support an erroneous position.
Ali and Ibn Abbas debated members of the group, and some returned to the wider Muslim community, while others remained opposed to Ali.
The Battle of Nahrawan
The conflict with the Kharijites eventually became armed.
After attacks and killings associated with the group, Ali confronted them at the Battle of Nahrawan in 38 AH.
The battle ended with the defeat of the Kharijite forces and the deaths of many of their fighters.
Nahrawan became one of the defining episodes of the internal conflict during Ali’s caliphate.
Muawiyah’s Control of Egypt
In 38 AH, Muawiyah’s forces gained control of Egypt after military and political confrontation.
Ali had appointed Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr as governor of Egypt, while Muawiyah sent Amr ibn al-As to the region.
The campaign ended with Amr’s control of Egypt and the death of Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr.
Continued Political Instability
Political instability continued during the final years of Ali’s caliphate.
Muawiyah sent forces toward several regions under Ali’s authority, while Ali faced increasing difficulty maintaining the unity and effectiveness of his forces.
The Muslim polity was divided among several centers of political influence, while disagreement continued over authority and the proper response to the events surrounding Uthman’s death.
The Death of Ali ibn Abi Talib
Ali was killed in 40 AH after being attacked by Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam, a Kharijite, while going to the dawn prayer.
Historical accounts describe a group of Kharijites who agreed to attempt the assassination of Ali, Muawiyah and Amr ibn al-As.
The attempt against Ali succeeded. Muawiyah was attacked but survived, while Amr did not lead the prayer because of illness, and another man went out in his place and was killed instead.
Who Was Ali ibn Abi Talib?
Ali ibn Abi Talib was a member of the Hashimite clan of Quraysh, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad and the husband of Fatimah, the Prophet’s daughter.
He was among the earliest Muslims. Historical reports differ concerning his exact age at the time of his conversion, with some reports placing him around ten years old.
Ali was one of the Prophet’s closest family members and participated in major military campaigns alongside him, including Badr and Uhud.
He remained in Mecca for a period during the Prophet’s migration to Medina to return trusts and belongings that had been entrusted to the Prophet.
Ali and the Migration
When the Prophet migrated to Medina, Ali remained behind temporarily to return the deposits and belongings entrusted to the Prophet by people in Mecca.
After completing this responsibility, Ali migrated to Medina and joined the Muslim community there.
The episode is traditionally regarded as an example of the trust placed in Ali and his fulfillment of his responsibilities.
The Virtues of Ali ibn Abi Talib
Ali was one of the most prominent scholars, jurists, speakers and military figures among the Companions.
He was the husband of Fatimah and the father of Hasan and Husayn.
Among the well-known narrations concerning his virtues is the statement attributed to the Prophet: “Whoever I am his mawla, Ali is his mawla.”
Another famous narration states: “You are to me as Aaron was to Moses, except that there is no prophet after me.”
Ali was widely recognized for his knowledge, courage, eloquence and understanding of Islamic law.
The Caliphate of Hasan ibn Ali and the Reconciliation
After Ali’s death, Hasan ibn Ali became caliph.
Hasan was aware of the divisions within Iraq and sought to prevent further bloodshed. He eventually reached a reconciliation with Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan.
The reconciliation brought the political conflict between the two sides to an end and reunited the Muslim community under a single political authority.
This development is connected with the well-known hadith concerning Hasan: “This son of mine is a leader, and perhaps Allah will reconcile through him two groups of Muslims.”
The Year of Unity
The reconciliation between Hasan ibn Ali and Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan took place in 41 AH.
That year became known as the Year of Unity because the political division between the two camps came to an end and the Muslims were brought together under one leadership.
It marked the conclusion of a major phase of the First Fitnah.
Major Events of Ali’s Caliphate
The major events of Ali’s caliphate included his pledge of allegiance after Uthman’s death, the Battle of the Camel, the Battle of Siffin, the arbitration, the emergence of the Kharijites, the Battle of Nahrawan, the loss of Egypt to Muawiyah’s forces and the continued political instability that ended with Ali’s death in 40 AH.
The history of this period requires careful attention to the differences between historical reports, particularly because accounts of the First Fitnah were transmitted through different sources with varying details and reliability.
When did Ali ibn Abi Talib become caliph?
Ali became caliph in 35 AH after the death of Uthman ibn Affan.
What were the major battles during Ali’s caliphate?
The most prominent were the Battles of the Camel, Siffin and Nahrawan.
Why did the Battle of Siffin occur?
It was connected to the political dispute over allegiance and the demand for justice against those responsible for Uthman’s killing.
Who were the Kharijites?
They were a group that separated from Ali after Siffin and the arbitration and later took up arms against him.
When did Ali ibn Abi Talib die?
Ali was killed in 40 AH after being attacked by Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam while going to the dawn
